Striking a balance? How the European Union manages the environment-trade nexus

This article introduces the environment-trade nexus and embeds the special issue into the evolving academic and policy debates about its management by assessing to what extent the European Union (EU) has been effective in managing this nexus. It distinguishes between the EU’s multi-, bi- and unilateral action, that is, within the World Trade Organization, via bilateral free trade agreements and through autonomous trade measures. Adopting a comparative approach that draws on the main findings of the special issue, the article argues that the EU has over time reinforced its nexus management activities across the three levels and diversified its policy tools. However, despite an increased output effectiveness, especially on the bi- and unilateral levels, impact effectiveness has so far been limited when it comes to ‘striking a balance’ between the two policies. The article concludes by discussing the policy-relevant lessons of these findings.